Agriculture during Indus Valley Civilization

 The nature of the Indus civilization's agricultural system is still largely a matter of conjecture due to the limited amount of information surviving through the ages. Some speculation is possible, however.

Earlier studies (prior to 1980) often assumed that food production was imported to the Indus Valley by a single linguistic group ("Aryans") and/or from a single area. But recent studies indicate that food production was largely indigenous to the Indus Valley. Already the Mehrgarh people used domesticated wheats and barley and the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley. Archaeologist Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) writes that the Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon" and that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanization and complex social organization in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated, cultural developments."

Indus civilization agriculture must have been highly productive; after all, it was capable of generating surpluses sufficient to support tens of thousands of urban residents who were not primarily engaged in agriculture. It relied on the considerable technological achievements of the pre-Harappan culture, including the plough. Still, very little is known about the farmers who supported the cities or their agricultural methods. Some of them undoubtedly made use of the fertile alluvial soil left by rivers after the flood season, but this simple method of agriculture is not thought to be productive enough to support cities. There is no evidence of irrigation, but such evidence could have been obliterated by repeated, catastrophic floods.

The Indus civilization appears to contradict the hydraulic despotism hypothesis of the origin of urban civilization and the state. According to this hypothesis, cities could not have arisen without irrigation systems capable of generating massive agricultural surpluses. To build these systems, a despotic, centralized state emerged that was able to suppress the social status of thousands of people and harness their labor as slaves. It is very difficult to square this hypothesis with what is known about the Indus civilization. There is no evidence of kings, slaves, or forced mobilization of labor.

It is often assumed that intensive agricultural production requires dams and canals. This assumption is easily refuted. Throughout Asia, rice farmers produce significant agricultural surpluses from terraced, hillside rice paddies, which result not from slavery but rather the accumulated labor of many generations of people. Instead of building canals, Indus civilization people may have built water diversion schemes, which - like terrace agriculture - can be elaborated by generations of small-scale labor investments.

In addition, it is known that Indus civilization people practiced rainfall harvesting, a powerful technology that was brought to fruition by classical Indian civilization but nearly forgotten in the 20th century. It should be remembered that Indus civilization people, like all peoples in South Asia, built their lives around the monsoon,a weather pattern in which the bulk of a year's rainfall occurs in a four-month period. At a recently discovered Indus civilization city in western India, archaeologists discovered a series of massive reservoirs, hewn from solid rock and designed to collect rainfall, that would have been capable of meeting the city's needs during the dry season.

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Invasion of Alexander in india

India, in Alexander's time, meant the land of the Indus–not necessarily the area where the modern country of India stands. The Greeks, who had limited knowledge of the geography of central Asia, knew almost nothing of the Indian subcontinent or China. India, to the Greeks, meant the area in western Pakistan, particularly the Punjab and Sind territories.

There are several possible reasons why Alexander chose to pursue India. Part may be simply that Persia had once possessed parts of India, and therefore Alexander, as the new Great King, wanted to reclaim it. As little was known about India, curiosity was likely also a factor. Perhaps most important, India was the end of Asia as far as Alexander knew; its acquisition was necessary if he was to rule the entire continent.

The invasion of India began in the summer of 327 B.C. Alexander proceeded as he had in his Persian conquest, vanquishing city by city. Many cities surrendered without a fight; those that did not were usually massacred without mercy. Alexander soon gained the support of Ambhi, the ruler of Attock. Alexander and his troops rested for a couple of months in the capital city of Taxiles as they prepared to meet Ambhi's enemy, Porus.

In response to Alexander's request that he submit, Porus assembled his army and prepared to meet Alexander on the bank of the Hydaspes River. When Alexander arrived, he found that Porus had the fords guarded with elephants, which made a crossing impossible. Moreover, whenever Alexander moved along the river, Porus mirrored him on the opposite side. To confuse his foe, Alexander divided his army into several units and spread them along the bank. This splitting up also gave Alexander a chance to search for other possible fords farther down; indeed, a suitable one was found seventeen miles upstream. The question was whether Alexander could keep Porus from following him all the way to that crossing point.

Once again Alexander devised a plan to confuse his enemy. For several nights, he sent the cavalry to various spots along the bank and instructed them to make noise and raise war cries. Porus, of course, followed them the first few times, but eventually stopped responding to Alexander's bluffs. On the night planned for the attack, Alexander divided the troops into three groups. One would remain in the original spot to keep Porus off guard, while a second group prepared for a crossing that would take place only if Alexander succeeded in clearing the fords. Alexander himself led the third group, consisting of about 15,000 infantry and 5,500 cavalry. Porus sent an initial group of about 2,000 cavalry, led by his son, to attack the Macedonians while they were crossing and to drive them back into the river. However, the Indians did not make it in time to have the early advantage, and Alexander easily defeated the troops.

 

Porus was therefore forced to march against Alexander with full force, leaving only a small detachment to face the second crossing group. The fact that Porus's front line consisted entirely of elephants prevented Alexander from using his cavalry, as the horses would not charge in face of the elephants. Once again, Alexander succeeded with a brilliant strategy. He kept a segment of his cavalry hidden, allowing Porus to think that he was winning. When Porus advanced to exploit Alexander's apparent weakness, the hidden cavalry emerged and caused confusion among the already exposed Indians. The battle culminated in the surrounding of the Indians, and Porus was finally prevailed upon to surrender. The victory had not been easy, however. The Macedonians were particularly troubled about the elephants, which had brutally trampled and mangled their soldiers. Nevertheless, it was Alexander's last major battle and one of his greatest.

Alexander allowed Porus to continue his rule–a decision likely motivated by Alexander's recognition that he was running out of resources to maintain a strong presence at every corner of his territory. Nevertheless, Alexander's thirst was not quenched, and he wanted to press farther, though his next opponent, the Nanda empire, would have been very formidable. Alexander's troops had other plans, however, and talks of mutiny abounded. The troops had been away for eight years and marched over 17,000 miles. The elephants had been especially demoralizing, especially since it was reported that Nanda possessed about 4,000 of them. Alexander offered every possible incentive and bribe, but even his chief officers sympathized with the men. One senior officer, Coenus, finally rose to speak on behalf of the men, and Alexander finally recognized that a rebellion led by a popular man like Coenus was an alarming possibility.

Alexander, therefore, he was finally prevailed upon to turn around and head home, though he never forgave his men and officers. He was convinced that he could have conquered the entire world if his men had not turned their backs on him. Furthermore, he showed no apparent gratitude for their service and dedication. He purposely took a difficult journey home that required constant skirmishes with unconquered Indian provinces. Alexander's armies finally left India by sea in September 325 B.C.

Some sources have exaggerated Alexander's success, particularly in his domain over India. In reality, Alexander's influence in the area was limited. Porus was essentially an independent ruler, though formally he derived power from Alexander. Moreover, Alexander did not have the resources to hold India in line, and by 317 B.C. all traces of Macedonian power had essentially disappeared. Nevertheless, Alexander had led a great expedition to unfamiliar territory, and he had conquered it as effectively as he had conquered the rest of Asia.

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Harappa and Mohenjo Daro

Harappa
 
The ruins of Harrappa were first described in 1842 by Charles Masson in his Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, where locals talked of an ancient city extending "thirteen cosses" (about 25 miles), but no archaeological interest would attach to this for nearly a century.

In 1856, General Alexander Cunningham, later director general of the archeological survey of northern India, visited Harappa where the British engineers John and William Brunton were laying the East Indian Railway Company line connecting the cities of Karachi and Lahore. John wrote: "I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway". They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. 

Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, "convinced that there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted", the city of Brahminabad was reduced to ballast. A few months later, further north, John's brother William Brunton's "section of the line ran near another ruined city, bricks from which had already been used by villagers in the nearby village of Harappa at the same site. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles (150 km) of the railroad track running from Karachi to Lahore".

In 1872 Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal (with an erroneous identification as Brahmi letters). It was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. Fleet, prompting an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921-22 and resulting in the discovery of the civilization at Harappa by Sir John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats, and at Mohenjo-daro by Rakhal Das Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Sir John Marshall.

By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the partition of the subcontinent in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein.

Following the Partition of India, the bulk of the archaeological finds were inherited by Pakistan where most of the IVC was based, and excavations from this time include those led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1949, archaeological adviser to the Government of Pakistan. Outposts of the Indus Valley civilization were excavated as far west as Sutkagan Dor in Baluchistan, as far north as at Shortugai on the Amu Darya (the river's ancient name was Oxus) in current Afghanistan, as far east as at Alamgirpur, Uttar Pradesh, India and as far south as at Malwan, Surat Dist., India.

On July 11th, heavy floods hit Haryana in India and damaged the archaeological site of Jognakhera, where ancient copper smelting were found dating back almost 5,000 years. The Indus Valley Civilization site was hit by almost 10 feet of water as the Sutlej Yamuna link canal overflowed. 

Mohenjo Daro
 
Mohenjo Daro - Mound of the Dead - is an archeological site in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. Built around 2600 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, and one of the world's earliest major urban settlements, contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Crete. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE, and was not rediscovered until 1922. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. However, the site is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration. 


Mohenjo Daro likely was, at its time, the greatest city in the world. Roughly 4,500 years ago, as many as 35,000 people lived and worked in the massive city, which occupies 250 acres along PakistanÕs Indus river. Mohenjo Daro sat beneath the soil for thousands of years, a preserved relic of the ancient Indus Valley civilization. But excavation exposed the city to the elements, and now, says the Telegraph, the ruins may have as little as 20 years left. 

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Major Cities of Indus valley civilization

 A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley civilization. The quality of municipal town planning suggests knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene. The streets of major cities such as Mohenjo-daro or Harappa were laid out in a perfect grid pattern, comparable to that of present day New York. The houses were protected from noise, odors, and thieves.

As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and the recently discovered Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes.

The ancient Indus systems of sewage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus Empire were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in some areas of modern Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive citadels of Indus cities that protected the Harappans from floods and attackers were larger than most Mesopotamian ziggurats.

The purpose of the "Citadel" remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilization's contemporaries, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, no large monumental structures were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples or, indeed, of kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath, which may have been a public bath. Although the "Citadels" are walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters.

Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighborhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads, and other objects. Among the artifacts made were beautiful beads of glazed stone called faence. 

The seals have images of animals, gods, etc., and inscriptions. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods, but they probably had other uses.Although some houses were larger than others, Indus civilization cities were remarkable for their apparent egalitarianism. For example, all houses had access to water and drainage facilities. One gets the impression of a vast middle-class society.

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Geography of Indus Valley Civilization

 The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan and parts of northwestern India, Afghanistan and Iran, extending from Balochistan in the west to Uttar Pradesh in the east, northeastern Afghanistan to the north and Maharashtra to the south.

The geography of the Indus Valley put the civilizations that arose there in a highly similar situation to those in Egypt and Peru, with rich agricultural lands being surrounded by highlands, desert, and ocean. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistan's northwestern Frontier Province as well.

Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Gujarat. Coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor in Western Baluchistan to Lothal in Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, in the Gomal River valley in northwestern Pakistan, at Manda,Jammu on the Beas River near Jammu, India, and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon River, only 28 km from Delhi. Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira.

There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan and the seasonal Ghaggar River in India. Many Indus Valley (or Harappan) sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. Among them are: Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, and Ganwariwala. According to J. G. Shaffer and D. A. Lichtenstein, the Harappan Civilization "is a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Koti Dij traditions or 'ethnic groups' in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley on the borders of India and Pakistan".

According to some archaeologists, more than 500 Harappan sites have been discovered along the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries, in contrast to only about 100 along the Indus and its tributaries; consequently, in their opinion, the appellation Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilization or Indus-Saraswati civilization is justified.

However, these politically inspired arguments are disputed by other archaeologists who state that the Ghaggar-Hakra desert area has been left untouched by settlements and agriculture since the end of the Indus period and hence shows more sites than found in the alluvium of the Indus valley; second, that the number of Harappan sites along the Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have been exaggerated and that the Ghaggar-Hakra, when it existed, was a tributary of the Indus, so the new nomenclature is redundant. "Harappan Civilization" remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilization after its first findspot.

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The Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300-1300 BCE; mature period 2600-1900 BCE) extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilizations of the Old World, and of the three the most widespread It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, one of the major rivers of Asia, and the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which once coursed through northwest India and eastern Pakistan.

At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings

The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of British India, and now is Pakistan. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj.Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999.

There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan, in the same area of the Harappan Civilization. The Harappan civilization is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from these cultures.

Until 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan and Rakhigarhi.

The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered. A relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favored by a section of scholars. 

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TNPSC-Group 4 General Studies Syllubus

                   GROUP-IV  Examination (S.S.L.C. Standard)
                                          General Studies
                                 Topics for Objective type 

UNIT-I GENERAL SCIENCE  :

Physics: Nature    of    Universe-General    Scientific    laws-Inventions    and    discoveries-National   scientific   laboratories-Mechanics   and   properties   of   matter-Physical  quantities,  standards  and  units-Force,  motion  and  energy-Magnetism, electricity and electronics -Heat, light and sound 

Chemistry:

Elements   and   Compounds-Acids,   bases   and   salts-Fertilizers,   pesticides, insecticides 

Botany:

Main   Concepts   of   life   science-Classification   of   living   organism-Nutrition and dietetics-Respiration 

Zoology:

Blood   and   blood   circulation-Reproductive   system-Environment,   ecology,  health  and  hygiene-Human  diseases  including  communicable  and  non  –  communicable  diseases  -    prevention  and  remedies-Animals,  plants  and human life 

UNIT-II. CURRENT EVENTS  

History

Latest  diary  of  events-national  -National  symbols-Profile  of  States-Eminent  persons  &  places  in  news-Sports  &  games-Books  &  authors  -Awards & honors’-India and its neighbors 

Political  Science

1.  Problems  in  conduct  of  public  elections-2.  Political  parties   and  political   system   in   India-3.   Public   awareness   &   General   administration-4. Welfare oriented govt. schemes, their utility Geography-Geographical landmarks- Economics-- Current socio-economic problems
Science-Latest inventions on science & technology 

UNIT- III. GEOGRAPHY  

Earth  and  Universe-Solar  system-Monsoon,  rainfall,  weather  &  climate-Water resources  --- rivers in India-Soil, minerals & natural resources-Forest &   wildlife-Agricultural   pattern-Transport   including   surface   transport   &   communication-Social   geography   –   population-density   and   distribution-Natural calamities – Disaster Management. 

UNIT - IV. HISTORY AND CULTURE OF INDIA AND TAMIL NADU

Indus  valley  civilization-Guptas,  Delhi  Sultans,  Mughals  and  Marathas-Age  of  Vijayanagaram  and  the  bahmanis-South  Indian  history-Culture  and  Heritage of Tamil people-India since independence-Characteristics of Indian culture-Unity  in  diversity  –race,  colour,  language,  custom-India-as  secular  state-Growth  of  rationalist,  Dravidian  movement  in  TN-Political  parties  and  populist schemes

UNIT-V.  INDIAN POLITY   

Constitution  of  India--Preamble  to  the  constitution-   Salient  features  of  constitution-  Union,  state  and  territory-  Citizenship-rights  amend  duties-    Fundamental  rights-      Fundamental  duties-      Human  rights  charter-   Union  legislature  –  Parliament-  State  executive-  State  Legislature  –  assembly-  Local  government  –  panchayat  raj  –  Tamil  Nadu-  Judiciary  in  India  –  Rule  of  law/Due   process   of   law-Elections-   Official   language  and   Schedule-VIII-   Corruption   in   public   life-  Anti-corruption   measures   –CVC,   lok-adalats, Ombudsman,   CAG   -   Right   to   information-  Empowerment   of   women-   Consumer protection forms 

UNIT-VI.  INDIAN ECONOMY 

Nature   of   Indian   economy-   Five-year   plan   models-an   assessment-Land   reforms  &  agriculture-Application  of  science  in  agriculture-Industrial  growth-Rural  welfare  oriented  programmers-Social  sector  problems  –  population,  education, health, employment, poverty-Economic trends in Tamil Nadu 

UNIT-VI.  INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

        
National  renaissance-Emergence  of  national  leaders-Gandhi,  Nehru,  Tagore-Different  modes  of  agitations-Role  of  Tamil  Nadu  in  freedom  struggle  Rajaji,  VOC, Periyar, Bharathiar & others- 

UNIT-VII

APTITUDE & MENTAL ABILITY TESTS

Conversion of information to data-Collection, compilation and presentation of data   -   Tables,   graphs,   diagrams   -Analytical   interpretation   of   data      -Simplification-Percentage-Highest  Common  Factor      (HCF)-Lowest  Common  Multiple    (LCM)-Ratio  and  Proportion-Simple  interest-Compound  interest-Area-Volume-Time      and     Work-Logical      Reasoning-Puzzles-Dice-Visual  Reasoning-Alpha numeric Reasoning-Number Series.

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Indian National Movement

Indian National Movement

    1. British expansion : The Carnatic Wars, Conquest of Bengal. Mysore and its resitance to British expansion: The three Anglo-Maratha Wars. Early structure of British raj: Regulating and Pitt's India Acts.

    2. Economic Impact of the British Raj : Drain of Wealth (Tribute); land revenue settlements (zamindari, ryotwari, mahalwari); Deindustrialisation; Railways and commercialisation of agriculture; Growth of landless labour.

    3. Cultural encounter and social changes: Introduction of western education and modern ideas. Indian Renaissance, social and religious reform movements; growth of Indian middle class; The press and its impact: rise of modern literature in Indian languages. Social reforms measures before 1857.

    4. Resistance to British rule : Early uprisings; The 1857 Revolt- causes, nature, course and consequences.

    5. Indian Freedom struggle-the first phase: Growth of national consciousness; Formation of Associations; Establishment of the Indian National Congress and its Moderate phase;- Economic Nationalism; Swadeshi Movement; The growth of "Extremism" and the 1907 split in Congress; The Act of 1909 - the policy of Divide and Rule; Congress-League Pact of 1916.

   6 . Gandhi and his thought; Gandhian techniques of mass mobilisation- Khilafat and Non Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience and Quit India Movement; Other strands in the National Movement-Revolutionaries, the Left, Subhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army.

    7. Separatist Trends in Indian nationalist politics- the Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha; The post -1945 developments; Partition and Independence.

    8. India independent to 1964. A parliamentary, secular, democratic (republic the 1950 Constitution). Jawaharlal Nehru's vision of a developed, socialist society. Planning and state-controlled industrialization. Agrarian reforms. Foreign policy of Non-alignment. Border conflict with China and Chinese aggression.

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UPSC-CSE Preliminary Examination Syllabus

CSE Preliminary Examination  Paper - 1
 

 Paper I - (200 marks) Duration : Two hours

    1.Current events of national and international importance.
    2.History of India and Indian National Movement.
   3.Indian and World Geography - Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India and the World.
   4.Indian Polity and Governance - Constitution, Political System, Panchayati Raj, Public Policy, Rights Issues, etc.
  5.Economic and Social Development -Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector initiatives, etc.
    6.General issues on Environmental Ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change - that do not require subject specialisation
    7.General Science.

 CSE Preliminary Examination  Paper - 2 (APTITUDE)

Paper II- (200 marks) Duration: Two hours

    1.Comprehension
    2.Interpersonal skills including communication skills;
    3.Logical reasoning and analytical ability
    4.Decision-making and problemsolving
    5.General mental ability
   6.Basic numeracy (numbers and their relations, orders of magnitude, etc.) (Class X level), Data interpretation (charts, graphs, tables, data sufficiency etc. - Class X level)
    7.English Language Comprehension skills (Class X level).

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Ashokan Inscription

The Minor Rock Edict of the Emperor Ashoka at Sasaram is located about two kilometers east of the famous mausoleum of Shershah Suri, on a hill, which seems to be as a eastern most extension of the Kaimur range, presently known as Chandan Shahid or Chand-Tan Shaheed Pahar after a grave/majar of a Muslim saint on the top of the hill. The inscription, which is now almost invisible, was engraved on the elongated stone under a very small rock shelter.

In the rock shelter or the cave there is another stone, attached obliquely with the engraved rock on which a major or grave of some Kajaliya Baba is now under worship and is under the possession of muslim community who have constructed a small wall in front portion of the rock shelter for fixing an iron gate.The rock shelter is very small having a height of only three feet and its interior space can accommodate hardly two persons inside the rock shelter.It seems that this rock shelter, having Asokan Minor Rock edict is under possession of Muslim community for quite longer period and they are applying lime coat/white washing regularly, with the result that the inscription is getting invisible.The text of this inscription was published by A. Cunningham, Buhler, Senat and Hultzsch and others scholars.

This inscription is written in eight lines addressed to the local officer. The king Ashoka issued this order after completing of two and half of year of his conversion into Buddhism and proclamation is issued by the king when he was on Dhamma Yatra (Pilgrimage) and has spent 256 nights away from his capital and datable to his 13th regional year i.e. 257 B.C.

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Megasthenes

Megasthenes was a Greek historian who came to India in the fourth century B.C. as a representative or ambassador of Seleucus Nicator. He lived in the court of Chandra­gupta Maurya for about five years (302-298 B.C.)

Megasthenes was born in 350 B.C.

Megasthenes has written an account of India and also that of Chandragupta’s reign in his book entitled “INDIKA”. This book is not at present available but most of its passages are found in the form of quotations in the writings of various Greek and Roman auth­ors. From these passages we come to know that Megasthenes had tried to write about everything that he had seen in India—its geography, government, religion and society.

Most of the scholars attach a great importance to the information received from Megasthenes. He has written in detail about Chandragupta Maurya’s administration as well as the Indian society in the Mauryan period.

Megasthenes on Mauryan Administration

Megasthenes has given us the following useful information regarding the Mauryan administration.

About the King: Megasthenes gives a detailed description of the personal life of Chandragupta Maurya. He led a very splendid life and his palace was unique in its beauty. The king did not sleep in one room for two continuous days. He did not favor meeting the people too much.

About Civil Administration: Megasthenes has written a lot about the civil administration of Chandragupta Maurya. He writes that the king was an autocrat and he was the master of un­limited powers. He kept himself fully aware of the main events of his empire through his spies.

About the Indian Society: Besides dealing with the Mauryan administration Megasthenes has provided us very valu­able information regarding the Indian society in the Mauryan period.

Megasthenes died on 290 B.C.

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Chandragupa Maurya

Chandragupta Maurya was born sometime around 340 BCE, reportedly in Patna, now in the Bihar state of India. Given the vast span of time since his birth, it is unsurprising that scholars are uncertain of many details. For example, some texts claim that both of Chandragupta’s parents were of the Kshatriya (warrior/prince) caste, while others state that his father was a king but his mother was a maid from the lowly Shudra (servant) caste.

It seems likely that his father was Prince Sarvarthasiddhi of the Nanda Kingdom. Chandragupta’s grandson, Ashoka the Great, later claimed a blood relationship to Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, but this claim is unsubstantiated.

We know almost nothing about Chandragupta Maurya’s childhood and youth before he took on the Nanda Empire. This supports the hypothesis that he was of humble origin, since nobody recorded anything about him until he founded the Mauryan Empire.

Overthrow of the Nanda:

From an early age, Chandragupta was brave and charismatic - a born leader. The young man came to the attention of a famous Brahmin scholar, Chanakya, who bore a grudge against the Nanda.

 Chanakya began to groom Chandragupta to conquer and rule in the place of the Nanda Emperor; he helped the young man to raise an army, and taught him tactics through different Hindu sutras.

Chandragupta allied himself to the king of a mountain kingdom, perhaps the same Puru who had been defeated but spared by Alexander, and set out to conquer the Nanda. Initially, the upstart’s army was rebuffed, but after a long series of battles Chandragupta’s forces laid siege to the Nanda capital at Pataliputra. In 321 BCE, the capital fell, and 20-year-old Chandragupta Maurya started his own dynasty - the Mauryan Empire.

The only one of Chandragupta’s queens or consorts for whom we have a name is Durdhara, the mother of his first son, Bindusara. However, it is likely that Chandragupta had many more consorts.

According to legend, Prime Minister Chanakya was concerned that Chandragupta might be poisoned by his enemies, so started introducing small amounts of poison into the emperor’s food in order to build up a tolerance. Chandragupta was unaware of this plan, and shared some of his food with his wife Durdhara when she was very pregnant with their first son. Durdhara died, but Chanakya rushed in and performed an emergency operation to remove the full-term baby. The infant Bindusara survived, but a bit of his mother’s poisoned blood touched his forehead, leaving a blue bindu; spot that inspired his name.

Unfortunately, we do not know about any of Chandragupta’s other wives or children. Bindusara is likely still remembered more because of his son than for his own reign. He was the father of one of India’s greatest monarchs ever - Ashoka the Great.

When he was in his fifties, Chandragupta became fascinated with Jainism, an extremely ascetic belief system. His guru was the Jain saint Bhadrabahu.

In 298 BCE, the emperor renounced his rule, handing over power to his son Bindusara. Chandragupta traveled south to a cave at Shravanabelogola, now in Karntaka. There, the founder of the Mauryan Empire meditated without eating or drinking for five weeks, until he died of starvation. This practice is called sallekhana or santhara.

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The Arthashastra

The Arthashastra is the title of a handbook for running an empire, written by Kautilya (also known as Chanakya, c. 350-275 BCE) an Indian statesman and philosopher, chief advisor and Prime Minister of the Indian Emperor Chandragupta, the first ruler of the Mauryan Empire. 

The title Arthashastra is a Sanskrit word which is normally translated as The Science of Material Gain, although Science of Politics or Science of Political Economy are other accepted translations for Kautilya’s work.
 

The Arthashastra summarizes the political thoughts of Kautilya. This book was lost for many centuries until a copy of it, written on palm leaves, was rediscovered in India in 1904 CE. This edition is dated to approximately 250 CE, many centuries after the time of Kautilya, but the main ideas in this book are largely his. 

 The book contains detailed information about specific topics that are relevant for rulers who wish to run an effective government. Diplomacy and war (including military tactics) are the two points treated in most detail but the work also includes recommendations on law, prisons, taxation, irrigation, agriculture, mining, fortifications, coinage, manufacturing, trade, administrations, diplomacy, and spies.

The ideas expressed by Kautilya in the Arthashastra are completely practical and unsentimental. Kautilya openly writes about controversial topics such as assassinations, when to kill family members, how to manage secret agents, when it is useful to violate treaties, and when to spy on ministers. Because of this, Kautilya is often compared to the Italian Renaissance writer Machiavelli, author of The Prince, who is considered by many as unscrupulous and immoral. It is fair to mention that Kautilya's writing is not consistently without principles in that he also writes about the moral duty of the king. He summarizes the duty of a ruler, saying, “The happiness of the subjects is the happiness of the king; their welfare is his. His own pleasure is not his good but the pleasure of his subjects is his good”. Some scholars have seen in the ideas of Kautilya a combination of Chinese Confucianism and Legalism.

Kautilya’s book suggests a detailed daily schedule for how a ruler should structure his activities. According to his view, the duties of a ruler should be organized as follows:

    First 90 minutes, at sunrise, the ruler should go through the different reports (revenue, military, etc.).
    Second 90 minutes, time for public audiences.
    Third 90 minutes for breakfast and some personal time (bath, study, etc.).
    Fourth 90 minutes for meeting with ministers.
    Fifth 90 minutes for correspondence.
    Sixth 90 minutes for lunch...

Kautilya goes on to describe an exhausting schedule in which the king has roughly four and half hours to sleep and the rest of the time is almost entirely involved in running the kingdom.

The Arthashastra offers a list with the seven components of the state: The king, the ministers, the country (population, geography and natural resources), fortification, treasury, army, and allies. Kautilya goes on to explain each of these individual components and stresses the importance of strengthening these elements in one’s kingdom and weakening them in the enemies’ states by using spies and secret agents.

One of the most interesting ideas presented by Kautilya is the “Mandala theory of interstate relations”. A mandala is  a schematic visual representation of the universe, which is a common artistic expression in many Asian cultures. Kautilya explains that, if we can imagine our kingdom in the centre of a circular mandala, then the area surrounding our kingdom should be considered our enemies’ territory. The circle surrounding our enemies’ territories belongs to our enemies’ enemies, who should be considered our allies since we will share many interests with them. The circle surrounding our enemies’ enemies territory will be the allies of our enemies. Kautilya then goes on analysing twelve levels of concentric circles and offers detailed advice on how to deal with each state according to the layer they belong to in the mandala construct.

The various types of foreign policy are also explained in the Arthashastra: peace, war, neutrality, preparing for war, seeking protection and duplicity (pursuing war and peace at the same time with the same kingdom).

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The Mauryan Empire

The Maurya Empire (322 – 185 B.C.E.), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military empire in ancient India. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains of modern Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal, the empire's capital city was at Pataliputra near modern Patna. Chandragupta Maurya founded the Empire in 322 B.C.E. after overthrowing the Nanda Dynasty. He began rapidly expanding his power westward across central and western India. Local powers had been disrupted by the westward withdrawal of Alexander the Great's and his Macedonian and Persian armies. By 316 B.C.E. the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander.

At its zenith, the Empire stretched to the northern natural boundaries of the Himalaya Mountains, and to the east into Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan and significant portions of Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces and Balochistan. Emperor Bindusara expanded the Empire into India's central and southern regions, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga, India.

The Mauryan Empire was arguably the largest empire to rule the Indian subcontinent. Its decline began fifty years after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 B.C.E. with the rise of the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha. Under Chandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indus region, defeating its Macedonian rulers. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Greek general from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors internal and external trade, and agriculture and economic activities, all thrived and expanded across India. Chadragupta created a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryan empire stands as one of the most significant periods in Indian history.

After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced a half century of peace and security under Ashoka. India was a prosperous and stable empire of great economic and military power. Its political and trade influence extended across Western and Central Asia into Europe. During that time Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of learning and the sciences. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society. Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism was the foundation of social and political peace and non-violence across all of India. The era fostered the spread of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, and Mediterranean Europe.

Chandragupta's minister Kautilya Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, considered one of the greatest treatises on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion ever produced. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in Southern Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka serve as primary sources of written records of the Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath, remains the emblem of India.

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Geographical distribution and characteristics of Pastoral and Farming communities (2000-500 BC)

Geographical distribution and characteristics of Pastoral and Farming communities (2000-500 BC)

 
The region falls into three major areas: the stretch between Peshawar and Taxila comprising the Peshawar valley and the Potwar plateau, the area between Swat and Chitral and finally the valley of Kashmir. The Neolithic levels of Saraikhola in the Potwar plateau gave way to Kot Diji related horizon and in some way this region as a whole was within the trading network of the contemporary Indus plains. In the Swat Chitral region the large number of sites that have been excavated show the use of different metals, stone and other objects among which are shell, coral and ivory which must have reached this region from the Indus plains. The rock shelter site of Ghaligai which perhaps goes back to 3000 BC provides the baseline in Swat -Chitral. The proto-historic graveyards of the region are dated between the second quarter of the second millennium BC and the late centuries BC. The evidence of such graveyards and associated settlements has been categorised as the Gandhara Grave Culture.

 

These Copper Age graves are marked by in-flexed burials and urn burials after cremation. Grave sites and associated settlements have been investigated at a large number of sites including Loebanr, Aligrama, Birkot Ghundai, Kherari, Lalbatai, Timargarha, Balambat, Kalako-Deray and Zarif Karuna located in the valleys of Chitral, Swat, Dir and Buner etc. In Kashmir more than 30 Neolithic sites have been found scattered but most of them are in the Baramula, Anantnag and Srinagar regions. This distribution points out that this was not a culture isolated from the plains. Handmade grey pottery with a mat impressed base is a distinguishing feature of the ceramic phase of the Kashmir Neolithic at both its excavated sites - Gufkral and Burzahom. The Neolithic phase in Kashmir merged into a megalithic phase around the middle of the second millennium BC. Handmade grey pottery with a mat impressed base is a distinguishing feature of the ceramic phase of the Kashmir Neolithic at both its excavated sites- Gufkral and Burzahom. The Neolithic phase in Kashmir merged into a megalithic phase around the middle of the second millennium BC.Ladakh and Almora,Northeast Rajasthan,South India,Eastern India,Malwa.

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The three main phases of the Indus Valley Civilization

The three main phases of the Indus Valley Civilization are:

    Early Harappan (Integration Era)
    Mature Harappan (Localization Era)
    Late Harappan (Regionalization Era)

Early Harappan Phase

The Early Harappan Phase lasted from 3300 BC to 2800 BC. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley. The earliest examples of the Indus script date back to 3000 BC. This phase stands characterized by centralized authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Trade networks had been established and there was also domestication of crops. Peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton, etc, were grown during that time. Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan Phase.

Mature Harappan Phase

By 2600 BC, Indus Valley Civilization had entered into a mature stage. The early Harappan communities were turning into large urban centers, like Harappa and Mohenjodaro in Pakistan and Lothal in India. The concept of irrigation had also been introduced. The following features of the Mature Phase were more prominent:

Late Harappan Phase

The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River Valley Civilization are believed to have started around 1800 BC. By 1700 BC, most of the cities were abandoned. However, one can see the various element of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization in later cultures. Archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till 1000-900 BC. The major reasons of the decline of the civilization are believed to be connected with climate change. Not only did the climate become much cooler and drier than before, but substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system also disappeared.

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Indus Valley Civilization- Extent

The Ancient Indus River Valley Civilization extended from Balochistan to Gujarat and from the east of the river Jhelum to Rupar. Some time back, a number of sites were also discovered in Pakistan's NW Frontier Province. Harappan Civilization covered most of Pakistan, along with the western states of India. Even though most of the sites have been found on the river embankments, some have been excavated from the ancient seacoast and islands as well. As per some archaeologists, the number of Harappan sites, unearthed along the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries, is around 500. Apart from that, those along the Indus and its tributaries are approximately 100 in number.

This civilization was spread over an area of about 1600 kilometers from West to East and 1100 kilometers from North to South. However, recent excavations in Gujarat have shown that the extent of the civilization is much more than what people had thought it to be earlier. Research scholars are of the opinion that this civilization has spread over an area of 1,300,000 square kilometers, which is more than that of any ancient civilization known so far.

Important Sites :

Though there are many sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, Mohen-jo-Daro and Harappa are considered more important, as these were the biggest centers of the civilization.

Mohen-jo-Daro in the Sindhi language, means the 'Mound of the Dead'. It was located in the Larkana district of Sindh (now in Pakistan). Here a big city was found buried under the mound.

Harappa was situated on the bank of the river Ravi in the Montgomery district of West Punjab (now in Pakistan). Mohen-jo-daro type of civilization existed also in this city.

Other important sites were Chanu daro in Sindh (Pakistan) about 130 kilomatres south of Mohen-jo-daro, Lothal near Ahmedabad in Gujarat, kali bangan in Rajasthan, Alamgir near Hatinapur in U.P. and Ropar in the Punjab, at the foothills of Shivalik.

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UPSC-CSE Preliminary Examination Syllabus

INDIAN HISTORY	MATHEMATICS
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION	CHEMISTRY
POLITICAL SCIENCE	PHYSICS
PSYCHOLOGY	BOTANY
SOCIOLOGY	ZOOLOGY
ECONOMICS	MEDICAL SCIENCE
STATISTICS	ANIMAL HUSBANDARY VETERINARY SCIENCE
PHILOSOPHY	AGRICULTURE
GEOGRAPHY	CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY	ELECTRIAL ENGINEERING
LAW	MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COMMERCE	........................................

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Zoology

I. Cell structure and function:

    (a) Prokaryote and eukaryote.

    (b) Structure of animal cell, structure and functions of cell organelles.

    (c) Cell cycle-mitosis, meiosis.

    (d) Structure and contents of nucleus including nuclear membrane, structure of chromsome and gene, chemistry of genetic components.

    (e) Mendel's laws of inheritance, linkage and genetic recombination; cytoplasmic inheritance.

    (f) Function of gene: replication, transcription and translation; mutations (spontaneous and artificial); Recombinant DNA: principle and application.

    (g) sex determination in Drosophila and man; sex linkage in man.

    II. Systematics :

    (a) Classification of non-chordates (up to sub-classes) and chordates (up to orders) giving general features and evolutionary relationship of the following phyla:

    Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematheliminthes, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata, Minor Phyla (Bryozoa, Phoronida and Chaetognatha) and Hemichordata.

    (b) Structure reprodcution and life history of the following types:

    Amoeba, Monocystis, Plasmodium, Paramaecium, Sycon, Hydra, Obelia, Fasciola, Taenia, Ascaris, Neanthes, Pheretima, Hirudinia, Palaemon, Buthus, Periplaneta, Lamellidens, Pila, Asterias and Balanoglossus.

    (c) Classification of chordates (up to orders), giving general features and evolutionary relationship of the following:

    Protochordata; Agnatha; Gnathostomata-Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia.

    (d) Comparative functional anatomy of the following based on type animals (Scoliodon, Rana, Calotes, Columba and Oryctolagus): integrument and its derivatives, endoskeleton, digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system including heart and aortic arches, urinogenital system; brain and sense organs (eye and ear); endocrine glands and other hormone producing structures, (Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads) their function.

    III. Vertebrate Physiology and Biochemistry :

    (a) Chemical composition of protoplasm; nature and function of enzymes; vitamins, their sources and role; colloids and hydrogen ion concentration; biological oxidation, electron trasport and role of ATP, enegetics, glycolysis, citric acid cycle; vertebrate hormones: their type, sources and fucntions; pheromones and their role.

    (b) Neuron and nerve impulse-conduction and transmission across synapses; neurotrasmitters and their role, including acetyl cholinesterase activity.

    (c) Homeostasis; osmoregulation; active transport and ion pump.

    (d) Composition of carbohydrates, fats, lipids and proteins; steroids.

    IV. Embryology :

    (a) Gametogenesis, fertilization, cleavage; gastrulation in frog and chick

    (b) Metamorphosis in frog and retrogressive metamorphosis in ascidian; extra-embryonic membranes in chick and mammal; placentation in mamals; Biogenetic law.

    V. Evolution :

    (a) Origin of life; principles, theories and evidences of evolution; species concept.

    (b) Zoogeographical realms, insular fauna; geological eras.

    (c) Evolution of man; evolutionary status of man.

    VI. Ecology, Wildlife and Ethology :

    (a) Abiotic and biotic factors; concept of ecosystem, food chain and energy flow; adaptation of aquatic, terrestrial and aerial fauna; intra-and inter-specific animal relationships; environmental pollution: Types, sources, causes, control and prevention.

    (b) Wildlife of India; endangered species of India; sanctuaries and national parks of India.

    (c) Biological rhythms.

    VII. Economic Zoology :

    (a) Beneficial and harmful insects including insect vectors of human diseases.

    (b) Industrial fish, prawn and molluscs of India.

    (c) Non-poisonous and poisonous snakes of India.

    (d) Venomous animals-centipede, wasp, honey bee.

    (e) Diseases causd by aberrant chromosomes/genes in man; genetic counselling; DNA as a tool for forensic investigation.

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